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the name of the country, traditionally called the argentine in english,[7][8] is derived from the latin argentum (silver). the first use of the name argentina can be traced to the 1602 poem "la argentina y conquista del río de la plata" (english: argentina and the conquest of the río de la plata) by martín del barco centenera. although this name for the la plata basin was already in common usage by the 18th century, the area was formally called viceroyalty of the río de la plata in 1776. the autonomous governments that emerged from the 1810 may revolution replaced "viceroyalty" with a "united provinces" designation.
one of the first prominent uses of the demonym "argentine" was in the 1812 first argentine national anthem, which made plenty of references to the ongoing argentine war of independence. the first formal use of the name was in the 1826 constitution, which used both the terms "argentine republic" and "argentine nation".[9] the constitution was repealed, and the territories were instead known as the "argentine confederation". this name was used in the 1853 constitution, being changed to that of the "argentine nation" in 1859, and to the "argentine republic" per an 1860 decree, when the country achieved its current organization. nevertheless, the names of the "united provinces of the río de la plata", "argentine republic" and "argentine confederation" are acknowledged as legitimate names of the country.[1]
history

main article: history of argentina
early history

cueva de las manos, over 10,000 years old, is among the oldest evidence of indigenous culture in the americas.
the earliest evidence of humans in argentina is in patagonia (piedra museo, santa cruz), and dates from 11,000 bc (diaguitas, huarpes, and sanavirones, among others). the inca empire, under sapa-inca pachacutec, invaded, and conquered present-day northwestern argentina in 1480, a feat usually attributed to túpac inca yupanqui. the tribes of omaguacas, atacamas, huarpes and diaguitas were defeated, and integrated into a region called collasuyu. others, such as the sanavirones, lule-tonocoté, and comechingones resisted the incas and remained independent from them. the guaraní developed a culture based on yuca, sweet potato, and yerba mate. the central and southern areas (pampas and patagonia) were dominated by nomadic cultures, the most populous among them being the mapuches.[10] the atacaman city of tastil, in the north, had an estimated population of 2,000 people, being the highest populated area in precolumbian argentina.
the most advanced indigenous populations were the charrúas and guaraníes, who developed some basic agriculture and use of pottery. however, most of their population were located at other sites of south america, and their presence at the territory of modern argentina was scarce in comparison.[11]
colonial period (1516-1810)
see also: government of the río de la plata, viceroyalty of the río de la plata, and may revolution

william carr beresford surrenders to santiago de liniers at the end of the first of the british invasions of the río de la plata.
european explorers arrived in 1516. spain established the viceroyalty of peru in 1542, encompassing all its holdings in south america. their first settlement in modern argentina was the fort sancti spiritu, established in 1527 next to the paraná river. buenos aires, a permanent colony, was established in 1536, but was destroyed by natives. the city was established again in 1580 as part of the governorate of the río de la plata. the area, which encompassed much of the territories that would later become argentina, was largely a territory of spanish immigrants and their descendants, known as criollos, mestizos, native cultures, and descendants of african slaves. a third of colonial-era settlers gathered in buenos aires and other cities, others living on the pampas as gauchos, for instance; indigenous peoples inhabited much of the remainder. most of the patagonia and gran chaco remained under indigenous control.
buenos aires became the capital of the viceroyalty of the río de la plata in 1776, which was created over some former territories of the viceroyalty of peru. until then, the city was neglected by the trade network of the spanish empire, having to rely on contraband for even basic private goods. the flourishing commerce improved the city, which became a regional power. the city, in 1806 and 1807, was the site of two ill-fated british invasions. the resistance was headed both times by the french santiago de liniers, who would become viceroy through popular support. the news of the overthrow of the spanish king ferdinand vii during the peninsular war created great concern in the viceroyalty. the may revolution of 1810 took place in buenos aires, removing viceroy cisneros from government, who was replaced by the primera junta.
independence wars and the early post-colonial period of the nation (1810-1880)
see also: argentine war of independence and argentine civil war
during the following decade, a war for independence ensued in the former viceroyalty, its regions divided between patriots and royalists. while the cities of present-day argentina would align with the independentists since 1811, the other regions would follow differing paths: in may 1811, paraguay seceded, declaring its independence. the upper peru would be hardly fought with the royalists from peru, until it declared independence as bolivia in 1824. the eastern bank of the uruguay river would be invaded by the brazilian-portuguese empire in 1817 and declared independence as uruguay in 1828 after the argentina-brazil war.

josé de san martín, liberator of argentina, chile and perú.
contemporarily, internal conflicts would cause political instability within the patriot camp. in just four years, the primera junta was to be replaced by the junta grande, the first and second triumvirates, and the first supreme director. in 1813, an assembly convened to declare independence, but it could not do so because of political disputes. a civil war ensued between the provinces joined into the federal league and the supreme directorship.
by 1816, the united provinces of south america were under severe internal and external threats. in july, a new congress declared independence and named juan martín de pueyrredón supreme director. the military campaign became the responsibility of josé de san martín, who led an army across the andes in 1817, and defeated the chilean royalists. with the chilean navy at his disposal, he then took the fight to the royalist stronghold of lima. san martín's military campaigns complemented those of simón bolívar in gran colombia, and led to the independentists victory in the spanish american wars of independence.
the 1820 battle of cepeda, fought between the centralists and the federalists, resulted in the end of the centralized national authority, creating a power vacuum (usually called the anarchy of 1820). a new constitution was only enacted in 1826, during the war with brazil, when bernardino rivadavia was elected the first president of argentina. this constitution was soon rejected by the provinces, because of its centralist bias, and rivadavia resigned shortly after. then, the provinces reorganized themselves as the argentine confederation, a loose confederation of provinces that, lacking a common head of state, would instead delegate some important powers, such as debt payment or the management of international relations, on the governor of buenos aires province.
juan manuel de rosas would rule from 1829 to 1832, and from 1835 to 1852. given the sum of public power, he faced unitarian resistance and a constant state of war, including a french blockade from 1838 to 1840, the war of the confederation in the north, an anglo-french blockade from 1845 to 1850, and the corrientes province revolt. rosas remained undefeated during this series of conflicts, and prevented further loss of national territory. his refusal to enact a national constitution, pursuant to the pacto federal, led to entre ríos province governor justo josé de urquiza's reclaiming provincial sovereignty. he defeated rosas at the battle of caseros, forcing him into exile. the san nicolás agreement followed, and in 1853 the constitution of argentina was promulgated. following buenos aires' secession from the confederation, and its later return, bartolomé mitre was elected the first president of the unified country in 1862. national unity was further advanced by the ensuing war of the triple alliance.[12]
a wave of foreign investment and immigration from europe after 1875 led to the strengthening of a cohesive state, the development of modern agriculture and to a near-reinvention of argentine society and the economy. the rule of law was consolidated in large measure by dalmacio vélez sársfield, whose 1860 commercial code and 1869 civil code laid the foundation for argentina's statutory laws. general julio argentino roca's military campaign in the 1870s established argentine dominance over the southern pampas and patagonia, subdued the remaining native peoples, and left 1,300 indigenous dead.[13][14] waged to suppress ongoing raids, some contemporary sources indicate that it was campaign of genocide by the argentine government.[15]
modern history

hipólito yrigoyen was an activist for universal (male) suffrage and was argentina's first president so elected (1916)

taking office that year, perón died in july 1974, leaving his third wife isabel, the vice president, to succeed him in office. mrs. perón had been chosen as a compromise among feuding peronist factions who could agree on no other running mate; secretly, though, she was beholden to perón's most fascist advisers. the resulting conflict between left and right-wing extremists led to mayhem and financial chaos and, in march 1976, a coup d'état removed her from office.
the self-styled national reorganization process intensified measures against armed groups on the far left such as people's revolutionary army and the montoneros, which from 1970 had kidnapped and murdered people almost weekly.[22] repression was quickly extended to the opposition in general, however, and during the "dirty war" thousands of dissidents "disappeared." these abuses were aided and abetted by the cia in operation condor, with many of the military leaders that took part in abuses trained in the school of the americas.[23]
this new dictatorship at first brought some stability and built numerous important public works; but frequent wage freezes and deregulation of finance led to a sharp fall in living standards and record foreign debt.[16] deindustrialization, the peso's collapse, and crushing real interest rates, as well as unprecedented corruption, public revulsion over the dirty war, and, finally, the country's 1982 defeat by the british in the falklands war discredited the military regime and led to free elections in 1983.
contemporary history

raúl alfonsín's inaugural address, 1983.
raúl alfonsín's government took steps to account for the disappeared, established civilian control of the armed forces, and consolidated democratic institutions. the members of the three military juntas were prosecuted and sentenced to life terms. the previous regime's foreign debt, however, left the argentine economy saddled by the conditions imposed on it by both its private creditors and the imf, and priority was given to servicing the foreign debt at the expense of public works and domestic credit. alfonsín's failure to resolve worsening economic problems caused him to lose public confidence. following a 1989 currency crisis that resulted in a sudden and ruinous 15-fold jump in prices, he left office five months early.[24]
newly elected president carlos menem began pursuing privatizations and, after a second bout of hyperinflation in 1990, reached out to economist domingo cavallo, who imposed a peso-dollar fixed exchange rate in 1991 and adopted far-reaching market-based policies, dismantling protectionist barriers and business regulations, while accelerating privatizations. these reforms contributed to significant increases in investment and growth with stable prices through most of the 1990s; but the peso's fixed value could only be maintained by flooding the market with dollars, resulting in a renewed increase in the foreign debt. towards 1998, moreover, a series of international financial crises and overvaluation of the pegged peso caused a gradual slide into economic crisis. the sense of stability and well being which had prevailed during the 1990s eroded quickly, and by the end of his term in 1999, these accumulating problems and reports of corruption had made menem unpopular.[25]

carlos menem receives the presidential sash from raúl alfonsín on july 8, 1989. this was the first democratic transfer of power between opposing political parties in argentina, since 1916.
president fernando de la rúa inherited diminished competitiveness in exports, as well as chronic fiscal deficits. the governing coalition developed rifts, and his returning cavallo to the economy ministry was interpreted as a crisis move by speculators. the decision backfired and cavallo was eventually forced to take measures to halt a wave of capital flight and to stem the imminent debt crisis (culminating in the freezing of bank accounts). a climate of popular discontent ensued, and on 20 december 2001 argentina dove into its worst institutional and economic crisis since the 1890 barings financial debacle. there were violent street protests, which clashed with police and resulted in several fatalities. the increasingly chaotic climate, amid riots accompanied by cries that "they should all go", finally resulted in the resignation of president de la rúa.[26]

néstor kirchner applauds his wife and successor, cristina fernández de kirchner, upon her inaugural in 2007.
three presidents followed in quick succession over two weeks, culminating in the appointment of interim president eduardo duhalde by the legislative assembly on 2 january 2002. argentina defaulted on its international debt, and the peso's 11 year-old tie to the u.s. dollar was rescinded, causing a major depreciation of the peso and a spike in inflation. duhalde, a peronist with a centre-left economic position, had to cope with a financial and socio-economic crisis, with unemployment as high as 25% by mid 2002, and the lowest real wages in sixty years. the crisis accentuated the people's mistrust in politicians and institutions. following a year racked by protest, the economy began to stabilize in late 2002, and restrictions on bank withdrawals were lifted in december.[27]
benefiting from a devalued exchange rate the government implemented new policies based on re-industrialization, import substitution and increased exports and began seeing consistent fiscal and trade surpluses. governor néstor kirchner, a left-wing peronist, was elected president in may 2003. during his administration, argentina restructured its defaulted debt with a steep discount (about 66%) on most bonds, paid off debts with the international monetary fund, renegotiated contracts with utilities and nationalized some previously privatized enterprises. kirchner and his economists, notably roberto lavagna, also pursued a vigorous incomes policy and public works investment.[28]
argentina has since been enjoying economic growth, though with high inflation. néstor kirchner forfeited the 2007 campaign, in favor of his wife senator cristina fernández de kirchner, who became the first woman to be elected president of argentina. she saw controversial plans for higher agricultural export taxes defeated by vice president julio cobos' surprise tie-breaking vote against them on 17 july 2008, following massive agrarian protests and lockouts from march to july. the global financial crisis has since prompted mrs. kirchner to step up her husband's policy of state intervention in troubled sectors of the economy.[29] on 15 july 2010 argentina became the first country in latin america and the second country in the southern hemisphere to legalize same-sex marriage.[30] [31]
geography

main article: geography of argentina

topographic map of argentina (including some territorial claims)
the total surface area (excluding the antarctic claim) is 2,766,891.2 km2 (1,068,302.7 sq mi), of which 30,200 km2 (11,700 sq mi) (1.1%) is water. argentina is about 3,900 km (2,400 mi) long from north to south, and 1,400 km (870 mi) from east to west (maximum values). there are four major regions: the fertile central plains of the pampas, source of argentina's agricultural wealth; the flat to rolling, oil-rich southern plateau of patagonia including tierra del fuego; the subtropical northern flats of the gran chaco, and the rugged andes mountain range along the western border with chile.
the highest point above sea level is in mendoza province at cerro aconcagua (6,962 m (22,841 ft)), also the highest point in the southern[32] and western hemisphere.[33] the lowest point is laguna del carbón in santa cruz province, -105 m (−344 ft) below sea level.[34] this is also the lowest point in south america. the geographic center of the country is in south-central la pampa province. the easternmost continental point is northeast of bernardo de irigoyen, misiones,(26°15′s 53°38′w) the westernmost in the mariano moreno range in santa cruz province.(49°33′s 73°35′w) the northernmost point is at the confluence of the grande de san juan and mojinete rivers in jujuy province,(21°46′s 66°13′w) and the southernmost is cape san pío in tierra del fuego. (55°03′s 66°31′w)[35]
the major rivers are the paraná (the largest), the pilcomayo, paraguay, bermejo, colorado, río negro, salado and the uruguay. the paraná and the uruguay join to form the río de la plata estuary, before reaching the atlantic. regionally important rivers are the atuel and mendoza in the homonymous province, the chubut in patagonia, the río grande in jujuy and the san francisco river in salta.

the andean range over santa cruz province.
there are several large lakes including argentino and viedma in santa cruz, nahuel huapi between río negro and neuquén, fagnano in tierra del fuego, and colhué huapi and musters in chubut. lake buenos aires and o'higgins/san martín lake are shared with chile. mar chiquita, córdoba, is the largest salt water lake in the country. there are numerous reservoirs created by dams. argentina features various hot springs, such as termas de río hondo with temperatures between 65°c and 89°c.[36]

main articles: ethnography of argentina and immigration to argentina
as with other areas of new settlement such as canada, australia, and the united states, argentina is considered a country of immigrants.[44] most argentines are descended from colonial-era settlers and of the 19th and 20th century immigrants from europe, and 86.4% of argentina's population self-identify as of european descent.[2] an estimated 8% of the population is mestizo, and a further 4% of argentines are of arab or asian heritage.[2] in the last national census, based on self-identification, 600,000 argentines (1.6%) declared to be amerindians[3] (see demographics of argentina for genetic studies).[45]
following the arrival of the initial spanish colonists, over 6.2 million europeans emigrated to argentina from the mid-19th to mid-20th centuries[46] argentina was second only to the united states in the number of european immigrants received, and at the time, the national population doubled every two decades mostly as a result.[47]

built in 1906 to welcome hundreds of newcomers daily, the hotel de inmigrantes is now a national museum.
the majority of these european immigrants came from italy and spain. italian immigrants arrived mainly from the piedmont, veneto and lombardy regions, initially, and later from campania and calabria;[48] up to 25 million argentines have some degree of italian descent, around 60% of the total population.[49] spanish immigrants were mainly galicians and basques.[50][51] smaller but significant numbers of immigrants came from france (notably béarn and the northern basque country), germany and switzerland, denmark, sweden, ireland, greece, portugal, and the united kingdom.[52] the welsh settlement in patagonia, known as y wladfa, began in 1865; mainly along the coast of chubut province. in addition to the main colony in chubut, a smaller colony was set up in santa fe and another group settled at coronel suárez, southern buenos aires province.[53] of the 50,000 patagonians of welsh descent, about 5,000 are welsh speakers.[54] the community is centered around gaiman, trelew and trevelin.[55]
eastern europeans were also numerous, and arrived from russia, ukraine, lithuania and from central europe (particularly poland, hungary and slovenia).[56] sizable numbers of immigrants also arrived from balkan countries (bulgaria, montenegro, romania and croatia).[57] argentina has south america's largest population of armenians. 130,000 armenian argentines are reported to live in argentina, including a population of 65,000 in buenos aires.[58]

immigrant population argentina (1869–1991)
small but growing numbers of people from east asia have also settled in argentina, mainly in buenos aires. the first asian-argentines were of japanese descent, beginning as visitors who eventually settled in the country starting from 1886; officially steady immigration of japanese began in 1912. chinese and koreans followed later. today, chinese are the fastest growing community, with 100,000 chinese-born residing in the largest argentine cities.[59][60][61]
the majority of argentina's jewish community are ashkenazi jews, while about 15–20% are sephardic groups, primarily syrian jews. argentina's jewish community is the fifth largest in the world. argentina is home to a large community from the arab world, made up mostly of immigrants from syria, lebanon and palestine. most are christians of the eastern orthodox and eastern catholic (maronite) churches, with small muslim and jewish minorities. many have gained prominent status in national business and politics, including former president carlos menem, the son of syrian settlers from the province of la rioja.
although relatively few in number, english immigrants to argentina have played a disproportionately large role in forming the modern state. anglo-argentines were traditionally often found in positions of influence in the railway, industrial and agricultural sectors. the historical english argentine status was complicated by an erosion of their economic influence during perón's nationalization of many british-owned companies in the 1940s and, more recently, by the falklands war in 1982.[52]