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1769 – 5 May 1821), was a military and political leader of France and Emperor of the French as Napoleon I, whose actions shaped European politics in the early 19th century.

Born in Corsica and trained as an artillery officer in mainland France, Bonaparte rose to prominence under the First French Republic and led successful campaigns against the First and Second Coalitions arrayed against France. In 1799, he staged a coup d'état and installed himself as First Consul; five years later the French Senate proclaimed him Emperor. In the first decade of the nineteenth century, the French Empire under Napoleon engaged in a series of conflicts—the Napoleonic Wars—involving every major European power. After a streak of victories, France secured a dominant position in continental Europe and Napoleon maintained the French sphere of influence through the formation of extensive alliances and the appointment of friends and family members to rule other European countries as French client states.

The French invasion of Russia in 1812 marked a turning point in Napoleon's fortunes. His Grande Armée was badly damaged in the campaign and never fully recovered. In 1813, the Sixth Coalition defeated his forces at Leipzig; the following year the Coalition invaded France, forced Napoleon to abdicate and exiled him to the island of Elba. Less than a year later, he escaped Elba and returned to power, but was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo in June 1815. Napoleon spent the last six years of his life under British supervision on the island of Saint Helena. An autopsy concluded he died of stomach cancer, though Sten Forshufvud and other scientists have since conjectured that he was poisoned with arsenic.

Napoleon's campaigns are studied at military academies the world over. While considered a tyrant by his opponents, he is also remembered for the establishment of the Napoleonic code, which laid the administrative and judicial foundations for much of Western Europe.

Contents [hide]
1 Origins and education
2 Early career
2.1 Siege of Toulon
2.2 13 Vendémiaire
2.3 First Italian campaign
2.4 Egyptian expedition
3 Ruler of France
3.1 French Consulate
3.1.1 Temporary peace in Europe
3.1.2 Reforms
3.2 French Empire
3.2.1 War of the Third Coalition
3.2.2 Middle-Eastern alliances
3.2.3 War of the Fourth Coalition
3.2.4 Peninsular War
3.2.5 War of the Fifth Coalition and remarriage
3.2.6 Invasion of Russia
3.2.7 War of the Sixth Coalition
3.2.8 Hundred Days
4 Exile on Saint Helena
4.1 Death
4.1.1 Cause of death
5 Marriages and children
6 Image
7 Legacy
7.1 Warfare
7.2 Metric system
7.3 Jewish emancipation
7.4 Napoleonic Code
7.5 Bonapartism
7.6 Admirers and critics
8 Titles
9 Notes
10 Citations
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links


Origins and education
Napoleon Bonaparte was born the second of eight children, in Casa Buonaparte in the town of Ajaccio, Corsica, on 15 August 1769, one year after the island was transferred to France by the Republic of Genoa.[1] He was initially named Napoleone di Buonaparte, acquiring his first name from an uncle who had been killed fighting the French,[2] but later adopted the more French-sounding Napoléon Bonaparte.[note 1]


Napoleon's father Carlo Buonaparte was Corsica's representative to the court of Louis XVI of FranceThe Corsican Buonapartes originated from minor Italian nobility, who had come to Corsica in the 16th century.[4] His father Nobile Carlo Buonaparte, an attorney, was named Corsica's representative to the court of Louis XVI in 1777. The dominant influence of Napoleon's childhood was his mother, Maria Letizia Ramolino, whose firm discipline restrained a rambunctious child.[5] He had an elder brother, Joseph; and younger siblings Lucien, Elisa, Louis, Pauline, Caroline and Jérôme. Napoleon was baptised as a Catholic just before his second birthday, on 21 July 1771 at Ajaccio Cathedral.[6]

Napoleon's noble, moderately affluent background and family connections afforded him greater opportunities to study than were available to a typical Corsican of the time.[7] In January 1779, Napoleon was enrolled at a religious school in Autun, mainland France, to learn French, and in May he was admitted to a military academy at Brienne-le-Château.[8] He spoke with a marked Corsican accent and never learned to spell properly.[9] Napoleon was teased by other students for his accent and applied himself to study.[10][note 2] An examiner observed that Napoleon "has always been distinguished for his application in mathematics. He is fairly well acquainted with history and geography... This boy would make an excellent sailor."[12][note 3] On completion of his studies at Brienne in 1784, Napoleon was admitted to the elite École Militaire in Paris; this ended his naval ambition, which had led him to consider an application to the British Royal Navy.[14] Instead, he trained to become an artillery officer and, when his father's death reduced his income, was forced to complete the two-year course in one year.[10] He was examined by the famed scientist Pierre-Simon Laplace, whom Napoleon later appointed to the Senate.[15]

Early career

Nationalist Corsican leader Pasquale Paoli. Portrait by Richard Cosway. Upon graduating in September 1785, Bonaparte was commissioned a second lieutenant in La Fère artillery regiment.[8][note 4] He served on garrison duty in Valence, Drôme and Auxonne until after the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, though he took nearly two years of leave in Corsica and Paris during this period. A fervent Corsican nationalist, Bonaparte wrote to the Corsican leader Pasquale Paoli in May 1789: "As the nation was perishing I was born. Thirty thousand Frenchmen were vomited on to our shores, drowning the throne of liberty in waves of blood. Such was the odious sight which was the first to strike me."[17]

He spent the early years of the Revolution in Corsica, fighting in a complex three-way struggle between royalists, revolutionaries, and Corsican nationalists. He supported the revolutionary Jacobin faction, gained the rank of Lieutenant Colonel and command over a battalion of volunteers. After he had exceeded his leave of absence and led a riot against a French army in Corsica, he was somehow able to convince military authorities in Paris to promote him to Captain in July 1792.[18] He returned to Corsica once again, and came into conflict with Paoli, who had decided to split with France and sabotage a French assault on the Sardinian island of La Maddalena, where Bonaparte was one of the expedition leaders.[19] Bonaparte and his family had to flee to the French mainland in June 1793 because of the split with Paoli.[20]

Siege of Toulon
Main article: Siege of Toulon
In July 1793, he published a pro-republican pamphlet, Le Souper de Beaucaire (Supper at Beaucaire), which gained him the admiration and support of Augustin Robespierre, younger brother of the Revolutionary leader Maximilien Robespierre. With the help of fellow Corsican Antoine Christophe Saliceti, Bonaparte was appointed artillery commander of the republican forces at the siege of Toulon. The city had risen against the republican government and was occupied by British troops.[21] He adopted a plan to capture a hill placing that would allow republican guns to dominate the city's harbour and force the British ships to evacuate. The assault on the position, during which Bonaparte was wounded in the thigh, led to the capture of the city and his promotion to Brigadier General. His actions brought him to the attention of the Committee of Public Safety and he was given command of the artillery arm of France's Army of Italy.[22] He became engaged to Désirée Clary, whose sister, Julie Clary, married Bonaparte's elder brother Joseph in 1794. The Clarys were a wealthy merchant family from Marseilles.[23]

13 Vendémiaire
Main article: 13 Vendémiaire