beyler amım yok benimm nolmuş

the civil war forced many nicaraguans to start lives outside of their country. although many nicaraguans returned after the end of the war, many people emigrated during the 1990s and the first decade of the 21st century due to the lack of employment opportunities and poverty. the majority of the nicaraguan diaspora migrated to costa rica and the united states, and today one in six nicaraguans live in these two countries.[133]
the diaspora has also seen nicaraguans settling around in smaller communities in other parts of the world, particularly western europe. small communities of nicarguans are found in france, germany, italy, spain, norway, sweden and the united kingdom. communities also exist in australia and new zealand. canada, brazil and argentina in the americas also host small groups of these communities. in asia, japan also hosts a small nicaraguan community.
[edit]culture

main article: culture of nicaragua

nicaraguan women wearing the mestizaje costume, which is a traditional costume worn to dance the mestizaje dance. the costume demonstrates the spanish influence on nicaraguan clothing.[134]
nicaraguan culture has strong folklore, music and religious traditions, deeply influenced by european culture but enriched with amerindian sounds and flavors. nicaraguan culture can further be defined in several distinct strands. the pacific coast has strong folklore, music and religious traditions, deeply influenced by europeans. it was colonized by spain and has a similar culture to other spanish-speaking latin american countries. the indigenous groups that historically inhabited the pacific coast have largely been assimilated into the mestizo culture.
the caribbean coast of the country, on the other hand, was once a british protectorate. english is still predominant in this region and spoken domestically along with spanish and indigenous languages. its culture is similar to that of caribbean nations that were or are british possessions, such as jamaica, belize, the cayman islands, etc. unlike on the west coast, the indigenous peoples of the caribbean coast have maintained distinct identities, and some still speak their native languages as first languages.
[edit]music
main article: music of nicaragua
nicaraguan music is a mixture of indigenous and european, especially spanish, influences. musical instruments include the marimba and others common across central america. the marimba of nicaragua is uniquely played by a sitting performer holding the instrument on his knees. he is usually accompanied by a bass fiddle, guitar and guitarrilla (a small guitar like a mandolin). this music is played at social functions as a sort of background music. the marimba is made with hardwood plates placed over bamboo or metal tubes of varying lengths. it is played with two or four hammers. the caribbean coast of nicaragua is known for a lively, sensual form of dance music called palo de mayo which is popular throughout the country. it is especially loud and celebrated during the palo de mayo festival in may. the garifuna community (afro-indian) is known for its popular music called punta.

distinctive traditional costumes and dance from a renowned folk dance from nicaragua, el güegüense.
nicaragua enjoys a variety of international influence in the music arena. bachata, merengue, salsa and cumbia have gained prominence in cultural centers such as managua, leon and granada. cumbia dancing has grown popular with the introduction of nicaraguan artists, including gustavo leyton, on ometepe island and in managua. salsa dancing has become extremely popular in managua's nightclubs. with various influences, the form of salsa dancing varies in nicaragua. new york style and cuban salsa (salsa casino) elements have gained popularity across the country.
bachata dancing has also gained popularity in nicaragua. combinations of styles from the dominican republic and the united states can be found throughout the country. the nature of the dance in nicaragua varies depending on the region. rural areas tend to have a stronger focus on movement of the hips and turns. urbanized cities, on the other hand, focus primarily on more sophisticated footwork in addition to movement and turns. a considerable amount of bachata dancing influence comes from nicaraguans living abroad, in cities that include miami, los angeles and, to a much lesser extent, new york city.
nicaragua has many artists such as carlos mejia godoy or the duo guardabarranco who are considered an essential[citation needed] part of the country's popular music and an influence on the younger national artists.
tango has also surfaced recently in cultural cities and ballroom dance occasions.
[edit]literature
main article: literature of nicaragua
the literature of nicaragua can be traced to pre-columbian times; the myths and oral literature formed the cosmogonic view of the world of the indigenous people. some of these stories are still known in nicaragua. like many latin american countries, the spanish conquerors have had the most effect on both the culture and the literature. nicaraguan literature has historically been an important source of poetry in the spanish-speaking world, with internationally renowned contributors such as rubén darío, who is regarded as the most important literary figure in nicaragua. he is called the "father of modernism" for leading the modernismo literary movement at the end of the 19th century.[135] other literary figures include carlos martinez rivas, pablo antonio cuadra, alberto cuadra mejia, manolo cuadra, pablo alberto cuadra arguello, orlando cuadra downing sergio ramirez mercado, ernesto cardenal, gioconda belli, claribel alegría and josé coronel urtecho, among others.
the satirical drama el güegüense was the first literary work of post-columbian nicaragua. it is regarded as one of latin america's most distinctive colonial-era expressions and as nicaragua's signature folkloric masterpiece, combining music, dance and theater.[135] the theatrical play was written by an anonymous author in the 16th century, making it one of the oldest indigenous theatrical/dance works of the western hemisphere.[136] after centuries of popular performance, the play was first published in a book in 1942.[137]
[edit]language
main articles: languages of nicaragua, central american spanish, nicaraguan spanish, and voseo

a sign in bluefields in english (top), spanish (middle) and miskito (bottom).

in this map, the use of the voseo form is illustrated, with countries such as nicaragua, where it is predominant, represented in dark blue. voseo is also predominant in argentina, uruguay and paraguay, where rioplatense spanish is spoken.
central american spanish is spoken by about 90% of nicaragua's population. in nicaragua, the voseo form of address is dominant in both speech and publications. the same is true for the río de la plata region of south america. nicaraguan spanish can be understood everywhere in the hispanosphere.
nicaraguan spanish has many indigenous influences and several distinguishing characteristics. until the 19th century, a hybrid form of nahuat-spanish was the common language of nicaragua. today nahuat, mangue, and mayan words and syntax can be found in everyday speech.[138] the nicaraguan accent dates back to the 16th century in andalusia, and the relative isolation of nicaragua meant that the accent did not change in the same ways that the andalusian accent has. for example, some nicaraguans have a tendency to replace the "s" sound with an "h"" sound when speaking.[138] other nicaraguans pronounce the word vos with a strong s sound at the end. in the central part of the country, regions such as boaco pronounce vos without the s sound at the end. the result is vo, similar to vous in french and voi in italian.
nicaraguans, unlike most spanish-speaking groups, cannot be categorized uniformly in terms of accent and word usage. although spanish is spoken throughout the country, the country has great variety: vocabulary, accents and colloquial language can vary between towns and departments.[139]
in the caribbean coast, many afro-nicaraguans and creoles speak english and creole english as their first language, but as a second language, they speak a fluent spanish. the language in the north and south atlantic regions are influenced by english, dutch, portuguese, spaniard and french roots. in addition, many of the indigenous people speak their native languages, such as the miskito, sumo, rama and garifuna language.[140] in addition, many ethnic groups in nicaragua have maintained ancestral languages, while also speaking spanish or english; these include chinese, arabic, german, and italian.
spanish is taught as the principal language. english is taught to students during their high school years and tends to be the national second language. other languages, particularly romance languages, can also be found sporadically, particularly within expatriate communities.
nicaragua was home to three extinct languages, one of which was never classified. nicaraguan sign language is also of particular interest to linguists as the world's youngest language.[141]

nicaragua is currently a member of the bolivarian alliance for the americas, which is also known as alba. alba has proposed creating a new currency, the sucre for use among its members. in essence, this means that the nicaraguan córdoba will be replaced with the sucre. members must make their local currency deposits in caracas, to enter into force on sucre. the monetary union first will be virtual, to be used only among the states for inter-regional trade. it will then be used in print form. the alba-sucre union is similar to that of the euro of the european union.
other nations that will follow a similar pattern include: venezuela, ecuador, bolivia, honduras, cuba, saint vincent and the grenadines, dominica and antigua and barbuda.[116]
[edit]tourism
main article: tourism in nicaragua
by 2006, tourism in nicaragua had become the second largest industry in the nation,[117] over the last 7 years tourism has grown about 70% nationwide with rates of 10%-16% annually.[118] nicaragua had seen positive growth in the tourism sector over the last decade, and it became the first largest industry in 2007. the increase and growth led to the income from tourism to rise more than 300% over a period of 10 years.[119] the growth in tourism has also positively affected the agricultural, commercial, and finance industries, as well as the construction industry.
every year about 60,000 u.s. citizens visit nicaragua, primarily business people, tourists, and those visiting relatives.[120] some 5,300 people from the u.s. reside in the country now. the majority of tourists who visit nicaragua are from the u.s., central or south america, and europe. according to the ministry of tourism of nicaragua (intur),[121] the colonial city of granada is the preferred spot for tourists. also, the cities of león, masaya, rivas and the likes of san juan del sur, san juan river, ometepe, mombacho volcano, the corn islands, and others are main tourist attractions. in addition, ecotourism and surfing attract many tourists to nicaragua.
according to tv noticias (news program) on canal 2, a nicaragua television station, the main attractions in nicaragua for tourists are the beaches, scenic routes, the architecture of cities such as león and granada, and most recently ecotourism and agritourism, particularly in northern nicaragua.[118] as a result of increased tourism, nicaragua has seen its foreign direct investment increase by 79.1% from 2007 to 2009.[122]
[edit]demographics

main articles: nicaraguans and demographics of nicaragua
[edit]population
according to the cia world factbook, nicaragua has a population of 5,891,199; comprising mainly 69% mestizo, 17% white, 5% amerindian, 9.0% black and other races and this fluctuates with changes in migration patterns. the population is 84% urban.
according to the cia world factbook, nicaragua's life expectancy was 71.5 years in 2009,[123] a figure roughly equivalent to that of vietnam and palau. the infant mortality rate stood at 25.5, roughly equivalent to that of the marshall islands and paraguay.[124]
nicaragua appears ranked 91st in the international mortality rate, which places it between the world average and panama.[125]
the most populous city in nicaragua is the capital, managua, with a population of 1.8 million (2005) and an estimated 2.2 by 2010 and more than 2.5 mill for the metro area. as of 2005, over 7.0 million inhabitants live in the pacific, central and north regions, 5.5 in the pacific region alone, while inhabitants in the caribbean region reached an estimated 700,000.[126]
there is a growing expatriate community[127] the majority of whom move for business, investment or retirement from united states, canada, europe, taiwan, and other countries; the majority have settled in managua, granada and san juan del sur.
many nicaraguans live abroad, particularly in the united states, mexico, costa rica, and canada.
nicaragua has a population growth rate of 1.8% as of 2008.[128] this is the result of one of the highest birth rates in the western hemisphere: 24.9x1,000 according to the united nations for the period 2005-2010.[129] the death rate is 4.1x1,000 during the same period [130] according to the united nations.
[edit]ethnic groups

an african-nicaraguan.
the majority of the nicaraguan population, (90% or approximately 7.0 million people), is either mestizo or white. 69% are mestizos (mixed amerindian and white) and 17% are white with the majority being of spanish, german, italian, english or french ancestry. mestizos and whites mainly reside in the western region of the country.
about 9% of nicaragua's population are black, and mainly reside on the country's sparsely populated caribbean or atlantic coast. the black population is mostly composed of black english-speaking creoles who are the descendents of escaped or shipwrecked slaves; many carry the name of scottish settlers who brought slaves with them, such as campbell, gordon, downs and hodgeson. although many creoles supported somoza because of his close association with the us, they rallied to the sandinista cause in july 1979 only to reject the revolution soon afterwards in response to a new phase of 'westernization' and imposition of central rule from managua.[131] nicaragua has the largest african diaspora population in central america. there is also a smaller number of garifuna, a people of mixed west african, carib and arawak descent. in the mid-1980s, the government divided the department of zelaya - consisting of the eastern half of the country - into two autonomous regions and granted the black and indigenous people of this region limited self-rule within the republic.
the remaining 5% of nicaraguans are amerindians, the unmixed descendants of the country's indigenous inhabitants. nicaragua's pre-columbian population consisted of many indigenous groups. in the western region the nicarao people, after whom the country is named, were present along with other groups related by culture and language to the mayans. the caribbean coast of nicaragua was inhabited by indigenous peoples who were mostly chibcha related groups that had migrated from south america, primarily present day colombia and venezuela. these groups include the miskitos, ramas and sumos. in the 19th century, there was a substantial indigenous minority, but this group was also largely assimilated culturally into the mestizo majority.
[edit]immigration

palestinian nicaraguans celebrating the 10th anniversary of the nicaraguan revolution in managua waving palestinian and sandinista flags.
relative to its overall population, nicaragua has never experienced any large-scale immigrant waves. the total number of immigrants to nicaragua, both originating from other latin american countries and all other countries, never surpassed 1% of its total population prior to 1995. the 2005 census showed the foreign-born population at 1.2%, having risen a mere .06% in 10 years.[126]
in the 19th century nicaragua experienced modest waves of immigration from europe. in particular, families from germany, italy, spain, france and belgium immigrated to nicaragua, particularly the departments in the central and pacific region. as a result, the northern cities of estelí, jinotega and matagalpa have significant communities of fourth generation germans. they established many agricultural businesses such as coffee and sugar cane plantations, newspapers, hotels and banks.
also present is a small middle eastern-nicaraguan community of syrians, armenians, palestinian nicaraguans, jewish nicaraguans, and lebanese people in nicaragua with a total population of about 30,000. there is also an east asian community mostly consisting of chinese, taiwanese, and japanese. the chinese nicaraguan population is estimated at around 12,000.[132] the chinese arrived in the late 19th century but were unsubstantiated until the 1920s.

exports

the seaport in corinto, nicaragua is the country's only deep-water port capable of handling container ships and tankers.
nicaragua is primarily an agricultural country; agriculture constitutes 60% of its total exports which annually yield approximately us $300 million.[90] in addition, nicaragua's flor de caña rum is renowned as among the best in latin america, and its tobacco and beef are also well regarded.
nicaragua's agrarian economy has historically been based on the export of cash crops such as bananas, coffee, sugar, beef and tobacco. light industry (maquila), tourism, banking, mining, fisheries, and general commerce are expanding. nicaragua also depends heavily on remittances from nicaraguans living abroad, which totaled $655.5 million in 2006.

trains were once the main mode of transport for goods. tracks were sold for scrap. the remaining train engines in nicaragua now serve as tourist attractions, as seen here in granada, nicaragua.
nicaragua has always been a predominantly agricultural country. on the pacific side, coffee and cotton are by far the most important commercial crops. in 1992, more land was devoted to coffee than to any other crop, and it is the nation's leading export in terms of value. nearly two-thirds of the coffee crop comes from the northern part of the central highlands, in the area north and east of the town of estelí.[91]
in the early 1980s, cotton became nicaragua's second-largest export earner. production is centered on large farms along the central pacific coast. unfortunately, the growth of the cotton industry has created serious problems. soil erosion and pollution from the heavy use of pesticides have become serious concerns in the cotton district. yields and exports have both been declining since 1985.[91]

nicaragua's economy has also grown due to the emigration of retirees from parts of north america and europe. the influx of incoming residents has generated the construction of residencies and commercial services throughout the country. illustrated above are the residencies of viejo santo domingo, which are some of the country's high-end residencies.
plantation crops are significant in the caribbean lowlands. after disease wiped out most of the region's banana plants in the years before 1945, attempts were made to diversify crops. today most of nicaragua's bananas are grown in the northwestern part of the country near the port of corinto; sugarcane is also grown in the same district.[91] subsistence farms, where food is grown mainly for the consumption of the farm family instead of for sale, are found throughout nicaragua. favorite food crops grown on such farms include rice, beans, maize, citrus fruits, and cassava. cassava, a root crop somewhat similar to the potato, is an important food in tropical regions. the plant's roots can be eaten boiled and sliced, or ground into flour. cassava is also the main ingredient in tapioca pudding.[91]
the pacific lowlands and the middle and southern parts of the central highlands are the principal cattle-grazing areas. an especially large number of cattle are found to the east of lake nicaragua.
beginning in the 1960s, shrimp became big business on both the pacific and caribbean coasts. the main shrimping centers on the pacific coast are corinto and san juan del sur. fishing boats on the caribbean side bring shrimp as well as lobsters into processing plants at puerto cabezas, bluefields, and laguna de perlas.[91]
the lumber industry, concentrated mainly in the eastern third of the country, has been lethargic since 1980, with its activities limited by several problems. first, the best trees in the most accessible places have already been cut down. in addition, pure groves of trees are uncommon in tropical forests. hundreds of species per acre are generally the rule, complicating the task of harvesting. moreover, the most valuable dense hardwoods will not float. as a result, these trees must be trucked out of the forest rather than floated downriver to a sawmill. finally, more restrictions are being placed on lumbering due to increased environmental concerns about destruction of the rain forests. but lumbering continues despite these obstacles; indeed, a single hardwood tree may be worth thousands of dollars.[91]
political turmoil has had a severe impact on the mining industry. exports of gold are down, and little effort has been made to develop the large copper deposits of the northeast. fighting during the revolution destroyed nearly one-third of nicaragua's industry. as it rebuilds, the government is trying to change the industrial mix of the country and achieve decentralization. before the revolution, more than 60 percent of the nation's industrial production, by value, was concentrated in managua. the industrial-decentralization policy may help to slow the growth of the largest cities, while assisting in the redistribution of income and development of economies in impoverished areas. major industries include food processing, cement production, metal fabrication, and oil refining. the centroamérica power plant on the tuma river in the central highlands has been expanded, and other hydroelectric projects have been undertaken to help provide electricity to the nation's newer industries.[91]
the economic core of nicaragua is located in the pacific zone, and the railway-and-highway network reflects that concentration of activity. the government-owned rail system—an inefficient money loser—is gradually being replaced by truck transport. transportation throughout the rest of the nation is often inadequate. for example, one cannot travel all the way by highway from managua to the caribbean coast. the road ends at the town of rama. travelers have to transfer and make the rest of the trip by riverboat down the río escondido—a five-hour journey.[91]
corinto is the only modern deepwater port in nicaragua. it handles both agricultural exports and general-cargo imports. petroleum is unloaded at puerto sandino, from which it travels by pipeline to a refinery in managua. trade with other nations in central america has increased in recent years. nicaragua has long been considered as a possible site for a new sea-level canal that could supplement the panama canal.[91]
[edit]components of the economy
gross domestic product (gdp) in purchasing power parity (ppp) in 2008 was estimated at $17.37 billion usd.[92] the service sector is the largest component of gdp at 56.9%, followed by the industrial sector at 26.1% (2006 est.). agriculture represents 17% of gdp, the highest percentage in central america [93] (2008 est.). remittances account for over 15% of the nicaraguan gdp. close to one billion dollars are sent to the country by nicaraguans living abroad.[94] nicaraguan labor force is estimated at 2.322 million of which 29% is occupied in agriculture, 19% in the industry sector and 52% in the service sector (est. 2008).
[edit]agriculture
after 1950 the scope of capital-intensive modern agriculture increased greatly. this growth was concentrated in export crops, while crops destined for domestic use continued to be produced by traditional labor-intensive methods. the shift to industrialized agriculture also significantly reduced the proportion of the population directly dependent on agriculture.
commercial agriculture thrives in the pacific lowlands, where cotton and sugarcane are the staple crops. although coffee is grown in the pacific zone at elevations over 1,000 feet (300 meters), the most important coffee zone is the northwestern part of the central highlands, from matagalpa to jinotega. cattle for the export of beef are raised in the southeastern part of the highlands. the overall expansion of export production by large landholders pushed the smallholders who produced the country's maize, beans, and other dietary staples onto marginal lands, with the result that food production could not keep up with population increase.
in the 1990s the government initiated efforts to diversify agriculture. some of the new export-oriented crops were peanuts, sesame, melons, and onions.[95]
nicaragua's agricultural sector has benefited because of the country's strong ties to venezuela. it is estimated that venezuela will import approximately $200 million in agricultural goods.[96]
[edit]fishing and forestry
forestry and fishing are the bases of the eastern seaboard's commercial economy. in national terms, neither sector was important until the take-off of the fishing industry in the late 20th century. mahogany was harvested commercially on the atlantic coast beginning early in the 19th century. in the 20th century pine stands began to be exploited. in neither case, though, was the resource managed so as to ensure a sustained yield.
nicaragua's fishing industry operates off both coasts and in freshwater lake nicaragua. the lake also has an aquaculture industry. the most valuable catches are shrimp and spiny lobster. the government expanded the size of the fishing fleet in the 1980s, which permitted a rapid expansion of shrimp and lobster exports in the 1990s. a turtle fishery thrived on the caribbean coast before it collapsed from overexploitation.[95]

in the coffin' for somoza. instead of helping to rebuild managua, somoza siphoned off relief money to help pay for national guard luxury homes, while the homeless poor had to make do with hastily constructed wooden shacks. the mishandling of relief money also prompted pittsburgh pirates star roberto clemente to personally fly to managua on 31 december 1972, but he died enroute in an airplane accident.[49] even the economic elite were reluctant to support somoza, as he had acquired monopolies in industries that were key to rebuilding the nation,[50] and did not allow the businessmen to compete with the profits that would result.
in 1973, the year of reconstruction, many new buildings were built, but the level of corruption in the government prevented further growth. strikes and demonstrations developed as citizens became increasingly angry and politically mobilized. the elite were angry that somoza was asking them to pay new emergency taxes to further his own ends. as a result, more of the young elite joined the sandinista liberation front (fsln). the ever increasing tensions and anti-government uprisings slowed growth in the last two years of the somoza dynasty.
[edit]nicaraguan revolution
main articles: nicaraguan revolution and fsln
in 1961 carlos fonseca, turned back to the historical figure of sandino, and along with 2 others founded the sandinista national liberation front (fsln).[37] fonseca turned to the kgb and cuba's dgi for arms and assistance, but the fsln was a tiny party throughout most of the 1960s, but somoza's utter hatred of it and his heavy-handed treatment of anyone he suspected to be a sandinista sympathizer gave many ordinary nicaraguans the idea that the sandinistas were much stronger.
after the 1972 earthquake and somoza's brazen corruption, mishandling of relief aid, and refusal to rebuild managua, the ranks of the sandinistas were flooded with young disaffected nicaraguans who no longer had anything to lose.[51] these economic problems propelled the sandinistas in their struggle against somoza by leading many middle- and upper-class nicaraguans to see the sandinistas as the only hope for removing the brutal somoza regime.
in december 1974, a group of fsln, in an attempt to kidnap u.s. ambassador tuner shelton, held some managuan partygoers hostage (after killing the host, former agriculture minister jose maria castillo, until the somozan government met their demands for a large ransom and free transport to cuba. somoza granted this, then subsequently sent his national guard out into the countryside to look for the perpetrateurs of the kidnapping that were described by opponents of this kidnapping as 'terrorists'. while searching, the national guard pillaged villages and imprisoned, tortured, raped, and executed hundreds of villagers. this led to the roman catholic church withdrawing any and all support of the somoza regime. around this time period, chilean president salvador allende was removed from power in a cia-planned and sponsored military coup that prompted allende to take his own life, as the presidential palace came under fire. with right-wing augusto pinochet in power in chile, several hundred committed chilean revolutionaries joined the sandinista army in nicaragua.[52]
on january 10, 1978, pedro joaquin chamorro, the editor of the national newspaper la prensa and ardent opponent of somoza, was assassinated.[53] this is believed to have led to the extreme general disappointment with somoza. the planners and perpetrators of the murder were at the highest echelons of the somoza regime and included the dictator's son, "el chiguin", the president of housing, cornelio hueck, the attorney general, and pedro ramos, a close ex-patriot, cuban ally who commercialized blood plasma.[53]
the sandinistas, supported by some of the populace, elements of the catholic church, and regional governments (including panama, mexico, costa rica, and venezuela), took power in july 1979. the carter administration, refusing to act unilaterally, decided to work with the new government, though attached a provision for aid forfeiture if it was found to be assisting insurgencies in neighboring countries.[54] a group of prominent citizens known as los doce denounced the somoza regime and said that "there can be no dialogue with somoza... because he is the principal obstacle to all rational understanding... through the long dark history of somocismo, dialogues with the dictatorship have only served to strengthen it... " somoza fled the country and eventually ended up in paraguay, where he was assassinated in september 1980, allegedly by members of the argentinian revolutionary workers party.[55]
to begin the task of establishing a new government, they created a council (or junta) of national reconstruction, made up of five members– sandinista militants daniel ortega and moises hassan, novelist sergio ramírez mercado (a member of los doce "the twelve"), businessman alfonso robelo callejas, and violeta barrios de chamorro (the widow of pedro joaquín chamorro). sandinista supporters thus comprised three of the five members of the junta.
the non-sandinistas, robelo and chamorro later resigned because they had little actual power in the junta. sandinista mass organizations were also powerful: including the sandinista workers' federation (central sandinista de trabajadores), the luisa amanda espinoza association of nicaraguan women (asociación de mujeres nicaragüenses luisa amanda espinoza), and the national union of farmers and ranchers (unión nacional de agricultores y ganaderos).
on the atlantic coast a small uprising also occurred in support of the sandinistas. this event is often overlooked in histories about the sandinista revolution. a group of creoles led by a native of bluefields, dexter hooker (known as commander abel), raided a somoza-owned business to gain access to food, guns and money before heading off to join sandinista fighters who had liberated the city of el rama. the 'black sandinistas' returned to bluefields on july 19, 1979 and took the city without a fight. the black sandinistas were challenged by a group of mestizo sandinista fighters.
the ensuing standoff between the two groups, with the black sandinistas occupying the national guard barracks (the cuartel) and the mestizo group occupying the town hall (palacio) gave the revolution on the atlantic coast a racial dimension which was absent from other parts of the country. the black sandinistas were assisted in their power struggle with the palacio group by the arrival of the simon bolivar international brigade from costa rica.
one of the brigade's members, an afro-costa rican called marvin wright (known as kalalu) became known for the rousing speeches he would make, which included elements of black power ideology in his attempts to unite all the black militias that had formed in bluefields. the introduction of a racial element into the revolution was not welcomed by the sandinista national directorate which expelled kalalu and the rest of the brigade from nicaragua and sent them to panama.[56]
[edit]sandinistas and the contras
main articles: fsln, contras, iran-contra scandal, and nicaragua v. united states
upon assuming office in 1981, u.s. president ronald reagan condemned the fsln for joining with cuba in supporting marxist revolutionary movements in other latin american countries such as el salvador. under the reagan doctrine, his administration authorized the cia to have their paramilitary officers from their elite special activities division begin financing, arming and training rebels, some of whom were the remnants of somoza's national guard, as anti-sandinista guerrillas that were branded "counter-revolutionary" by leftists (contrarrevolucionarios in spanish).[57] reagan was also concerned about the growing soviet and cuban presence in nicaragua, and the soviet hope to turn nicaragua into a "second cuba."
this was shortened to contras, a label the anti-socialist forces chose to embrace. eden pastora and many of the indigenous guerrilla forces unassociated with the "somozistas" also resisted the sandinistas. the contras operated out of camps in the neighboring countries of honduras to the north and costa rica to the south.[57] as was typical in guerrilla warfare, they were engaged in a campaign of economic sabotage in an attempt to combat the sandinista government and disrupted shipping by planting underwater mines in nicaragua's corinto harbour,[58] an action condemned by the world court as illegal.[59][60] the u.s. also sought to place economic pressure on the sandinistas, and the reagan administration imposed a full trade embargo.[61]
u.s. support for this nicaraguan insurgency continued in spite of the fact that impartial observers from international groupings such as the european economic community, religious groups sent to monitor the election, and observers from democratic nations such as canada and the republic of ireland concluded, despite visible evidence of abuse, that the nicaraguan general elections of 1984 were completely free and fair. the reagan administration disputed these results, despite the fact that the government of the united states never had any observers in nicaragua at the time.