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until recently, the word "modern" used to refer generically to the contemporaneous; all art is modern at the time it is made. in his book of the art ("the book of the art") in 1437, cennino cennini explains that giotto made painting "modern" [see bibliography]. giorgio vasari writing in 16th-century italy refers to the art of his own period as "modern." [see bibliography]

these truths more often than not flew in the face of conventional beliefs, especially those held by the church. for example, contrary to what the church had maintained for centuries, the "truth" was that the earth revolved around the sun. the idea that "truth" could be discovered through the application of reason was tremendously exciting.

the open-minded 18th-century thinker believed that virtually everything could be submitted to reason: tradition, customs, history, even art. but, more than this, it was felt that the "truth" revealed thereby could be applied in the political and social spheres to "correct" problems and "improve" the political and social condition of humankind. this kind of thinking quickly gave rise to the exciting possibility of creating a new and better society.

the "truth" discovered through reason would free people from the shackles of corrupt institutions such as the church and the monarchy whose misguided traditional thinking and old ideas had kept people subjugated in ignorance and superstition. the belief was that "the truth shall set you free." the concept of freedom became central to the vision of a new society. through truth and freedom, the world would be made into a better place.

progressive 18th-century thinkers believed that the lot of humankind would be greatly improved through the process enlightenment, from being shown the truth. with reason and truth in hand, the individual would no longer be at the mercy of religious and secular authorities which had constructed their own truths and manipulated them to their own self-serving ends. at the root of this thinking is the belief in the perfectibility of humankind.

the vision that began to take shape in the 18th century was of a new world, a better world. in 1763, jean-jacques rousseau proposed a new society for the individual in his inquiry into the nature of the social contract. rousseau declared the right of liberty and equality for all men.

such declarations were found not only in books. in the 18th century, two major attempts were made to put these ideas into practice. such ideas, of course, were not popular with conservative and traditional elements, and their resistance had to be overcome in both cases through bloody revolution.

the first great experiment in creating a new and better society was undertaken in what was literally the new world and the new ideals were first expressed in the declaration of independence of the newly founded united states. it is enlightenment thinking that informs such phrases as "we hold these truths to be self-evident" and which underpins the notion "that all men are created equal." its wordly character is clearly reflected in its stated concern for man's happiness and welfare in this lifetime, a new notion that runs counter to the christian focus on the afterlife.

fundamental, too, is the notion of freedom, liberty; it was declared one of man's inalienable rights. in 1789, the french also attempted through bloody revolution to create a new society, with the revolutionaries rallying to the cry of equality, fraternity, and liberty.

the french revolution, however, failed to bring about a radically new society in france. mention may be made here of a third major attempt to create a new society along fundamentally enlightenment lines that took place at the beginning of the 20th century. the russian revolution, perhaps the most idealistic and utopian of all, has also failed.

it is in the ideals of the enlightenment that the roots of modernism, and the new role of art and the artist, are to be found. simply put, the overarching goal of modernism, of modern art, has been the creation of a better society.

what were the means by which this goal was to be reached? if the desire of the 18th century was to produce a better society, how was this to be brought about? how does one go about perfecting humankind and creating a new world?

as we have seen, it was the 18th-century belief that only the enlightened mind can find truth; both enlightenment and truth were discovered through the application of reason to knowledge, a process that also created new knowledge. the individual acquired knowledge and at the same time the means to discover truth in it through proper education and instruction. cleansed of the corruptions of religious and political ideology by open-minded reason, education brings us the truth, or shows us how to reach the truth. education enlightens us and makes us better people. educated enlightened people will form the foundations of the new society, a society which they will create through their own efforts.

until recently, this concept of the role of education has remained fundamental to western modernist thinking. enlightened thinkers, and here might be mentioned for example, thomas jefferson, constantly pursued knowledge, sifting out the truth by subjecting all they learned to reasoned analysis. jefferson, of course, not only consciously cultivated his own enlightenment, but also actively promoted education for others, founding in charlottesville an academical village that later became the university of virginia. he believed that the search for truth should be conducted without prejudice, and, mindful of the enlightenment suspicion of the church, deliberately did not include a chapel in his plans on the campus. the church and its narrow-minded influences, he felt, should be kept separate not only from the state, but also from education.

in this way, the prevailing conservative ethos of society maintained control over the impulses of progressive modernism.